Gerotranscendence as an alternative ageing theory

Gerotranscendence as an alternative ageing theory The theory of gerotranscendence has been chosen for the purpose of this essay as it represents an alternative ageing theory and can be useful when planning to carry out a research project in a nursing home with the aim to find out how elderly people experience their daily life in an institution. The theory of gerotranscendence may help provide a more balanced understanding of the quality of life of the older adult living in a nursing home (Tornstam, 1989: Tornstam, 1997b). A brief description of the theory of gerotranscendence follows. Fawcett (2000) argues that the theories on human ageing may be divided into two main categories: biological ageing theories, and  the psychological and social ageing theories. This essay aims to describe, analyze and present a critique of Lars Tornstams theory of Gerotranscendence. According to Tornstam (1992, 1994, 1996a) human ageing is characterized by a general process towards gerotranscendence. Gerotranscendence is a shift in meta-perspective, from a materialistic and rational view of the world to a more cosmic and transcendent view. It is a natural and individual process that leads to maturity and wisdom in old age (Tornstam, 1996b). Within this essay, the basis of this theory will be explored, together with the analysis of its development. Moreover, the theory of gerotranscendence will be viewed in the light of the nursing science and whether it is easy and logical to comprehend. Values and assumptions will also be reviewed. These are the topics that this essay will attempt to discuss in relation to the nursing practice, education and research. 2.0 Description of the Theory of Gerotranscendence The theory of gerotranscendence was developed by Lars Tornstam, professor of sociology at the University of Uppsala in Sweden. This theory has been developed as a reaction to the prevailing ageing theories within gerontological nursing (Tornstam, 1992). Tornstam (1992, 1994, 1996a) states that human ageing, i.e. living into old age, is characterized by a general process towards gerotranscendence. This process involves a change in the way individuals perceive basic concepts, and it occurs after a certain point in life. The definition of reality also changes as a result of this. In a normal ageing process this shift is made from the middle-aged persons definition of reality based on a materialistic and rational vision, to the ageing persons more cosmic and transcendent vision. Tornstam turned to eastern cultures and religion, in the form of Zen Buddhism in order to formulate his theory (Tornstam, 1992, 1994, 1996a). According to Tornstam (1994), a transcendent vision of life involves a change in the perception of time, so that the boundaries between past, present and future are erased. In the same way the boundaries between the self and other individuals may also become diffused. These boundaries between past, present and future, and between self and others, which in a materialistic and rational way of thinking are so important, become superfluous in old age (Tornstam, 1992, 1994, 1996a). As a consequence, the individual with a transcendent perspective experiences in old age a need to spend more time on meditation and less on material things and superficial social relations. The material world is avoided, whilst the older adult turns to spirituality a more important concept in life. A person who has experienced gerotranscendence view the younger generation as captured in a materialistic conception of the world, spending their time on superficial relationships and things (Tornstam, 1989). Thus, as Tornstam sustains, after mid-life there is a new conception of life, which in turn brings a change in how we look at life i.e. a shift in meta-perspective, as Tornstam labels it. This new meta-perspective provides the individual with an easy way to understand what to value in old age (Tornstam, 1994). The shift in meta-perspective is normal for all individuals according to Tornstam, since it is genetically conditioned. Gerotranscendence is the end result of a natural process towards maturation and wisdom in which reality is defined differently than in mid-life. Due to its natural origins, gerotranscendence lead the older adult to have an increased life satisfaction after mid-life (Tornstam, 1994). The progression towards gerotranscendence may be hindered or accelerated by cultural characteristics. The presence of predominant values of effectiveness, materialism and independence in Western culture may obstruct or retard such process (Tornstam, 1997c). Tornstam suggests that the theory of gerotranscendence is one of several valuable theories on ageing (Tornstam, 1994). Other theories, such as the social breakdown syndrome, may be relevant for some elderly people (Fawcett, 2000). This theory is meant as a supplement which represents another paradigm. However, Fawcett (2000) suggests that two paradigms may be valid at the same time, it is only necessary to know what they represent. 3.0 -Theory of Gerotranscendence: An Analysis 3.1 Concept Analysis No definition of the concept behind gerotranscendence is provided by the author (Thorsen, 1998). Rather than providing a definition, the author of this theory chooses to describe the concept by an analysis of social values combined with a portrayal of the distinctive features of gerotranscendence (Thorsen, 1998: Gamliel, 2001). One may argue that the lack of a direct definition of the concept behind this theory may itself cause vagueness in its usage both in education and practice. Within practice nursing, there is a general agreement within the literature that signs of gerotranscendence are often interpreted as pathological rather than a natural process (Gamliel, 2001: Wadensten Carlsson, 2000: Wadensten, 2007). Wadensten and Carlsson (2000) argued that a lack of a clear definition of the concept behind gerotranscendence may result in an incorrect and/or absent theoretical framework to relate to, influencing both nursing in practice and nursing research (Meleis, 1991). Perhaps Torn stam has chosen not to define the concept because he thinks that a brief description would only serve to narrow down the understanding of the concept (Fawcett, 2000: Watson, 1997). One may also argue that the lack of concept definition can be used as an advantage both in nursing research and practice as it will unconsciously increase its applicability in different contexts (Meleis, 1991). Is the Concept logically derived? The concept of gerotranscendence is in many respects a logical one since it is intuitively easy to understand as it may make the readers recognize their own ageing process and their experiences with older adults (Meleis, 1991: Wadensten, 2006). Within an academic point of view, this type of intuitive feeling for a concept is not considered very scientific, but is probably important since it makes it easier to grasp the general idea of  the theory. On the other hand, the lack of definition makes it more difficult to understand. Secondly, Tornstam derives the concept of gerotranscendence from concepts present in Eastern cultures and eastern Philosophy, such as Zen Buddhism which are rather unfamiliar and unscientific from a Western cultural and logical point of view. Concepts such as mystical, meditation, cosmic communion and especially his description of diffuse borders in time and between objects, makes the concept of gerotranscendence hard to understand in a logical sense both in nursing education and nursing practice (Thorsen, 1998: Wadensten, 2007a). The shift in meta-perspective i.e. past, present and future become diffused, whilst the self and others become indistinct are often denominated to be pathological in Western cultures (Wadensten, 2007a). From this perspective the concept of gerotranscendence may appear illogical. In line with these arguments, Wadensten and Carlsson (2000) investigated whether nursing staff in Swedish nursing homes could recognize signs of gerotranscendence. Qualitative interviews and an interview guide based on the theory of gerotranscendence were used. Findings showed that staff noticed signs of gerotranscendence; however most of these signs were interpreted as pathological sustaining previously raised arguments (Wadensten and Carlsson, 2000). If the theory of gerotranscendence is used to provide an interpretative framework, these signs would be seen as normal aspects of ageing. 3.2 Theory Analysis The basis of the Theory of Gerotranscendence Tornstam (1992 and 1997a) argues that within gerontological research there is a prevailing research paradigm which negatively affects nursing and gerontological research and alternitavely health care distribution. He (Tornstam, 1994) states that gerontology is encapsulated in a natural science paradigm, entailing that research is primarily focused on the behavior of the elderly, where the individuals are regarded as research objects only, discarding experiences, attitudes and behaviors. This research paradigm generally states that the researcher shall assess and analyze the actual facts concerning a phenomenon in an objective and unbiased manner. Tornstam (1992 and 1997a) argues that within this prevailing gerontological research the latter is not achieved. Gerontological and nurse researchers can modify the paradigm by asking the elderly themselves about their understanding and experience of their own situation, in other words a more phenomenological approach. Wadensten (2005) conducted a qualitative descriptive study in order to introduce the theory of gerotranscendence to older people. Participants were invited to participate in group sessions at a day centre during which they discussed their ageing process. A video on the theory of gerotranscendence was shown, and participants were asked to discuss the description of the ageing process described in the video with their own personal experiences. From this study, Wadensten (2005) concluded that involving the elderly in their own care is an opportunity to use aspects of the theory of gerotranscendence as an intervention in nursing. Wadensten (2005) argued that nurses are in an ideal position to improve the quality of life for the older adult and to promote health using a phenomenologic al approach, through discussions about ageing. Furthermore Tornstam (1992) claims that the anthropological research tradition may be useful in this respect. An immediate reaction in the nursing literature (Thorsen, 1998: Gamliel, 2001: Wadensten, 2007a; Roy, 1984 consider referencing actual article) proposes the following questions: Does Tornstam himself consider this criticism when formulating his own theory? Does reversing the prevalent paradigm mean that one is assuming the perspective of the elderly? Isnt it a researcher in mid-life who is performing this reversal? Does turning to Eastern religion and philosophy mean that the elderly in Western cultures are not being taken seriously? It is conspicuous that Tornstam, who criticizes gerontological research and theory development, appears to fall into the same trap as the other theoreticians. Some authors argue that the basis of the theory of gerotranscendence is acquired only from a little number of elderly. Others argue that such theory should be developed by asking elderly populations within a Western culture. However Tornstam (1989) justifies the latter as he thinks that they are captured in a materialistic and rationalistic world. Tornstam reverses the values he claims are predominant in the West, stating that they are the real values of the elderly. Tornstam also does not ask the elderly from a Western culture about their vital spiritual values. Most of the elderly in the West have their spiritual roots in this religion. Perhaps nursing practice, research and education would have felt more familiar with Tornstams ideas if he had based his theory on Christian philosophy and Western Cultures. What Kind of Theory and at Which Level is it Valid? Tornstam recounts his own increasing feeling of doubt when the theory of disengagement was rejected by the gerontological community. He had first agreed that the theory should be rejected, but later he felt intuitively that this theory had an explanatory force which gerontological researchers were unable to achieve. Tornstam thus used logical reasoning combined with his own feelings when formulating the theory, which indicates a theory based on deduction (Tornstam, 1989). On the other hand, empirical data have evidently been vital to the formulation of the theory. Tornstam reacted to the many myths on ageing that persisted even though empirical research proved the opposite (Tornstam, 1989). He also noted that the elderly themselves reported being very satisfied with their lives, even though they had evidently reduced their social activity, and also did not feel lonelier in old age than earlier in their lives (Roy, 1984). These empirical findings clearly contributed to the formulation of the theory of gerotranscendence. Moreover, it provides a new understanding of what is called passivity of the elderly (Tornstam, 1989). The theory of gerotranscendence is mainly developed through deduction, but also with input of empirical data, and hence is doubtless quite typical. It is hard to define the theory as either deductive or inductive, but it is probably primarily deductive (Gamliel, 2001: Wadensten, 2006). Generalisation Potential of the Theory? The theory states that all humans will naturally develop towards gerotranscendence, that this is a universal phenomenon. In other words, the theory aims to apply for all individuals (Wadensten, 2006). What about the difference between Eastern and Western values? The theory also includes strategies to explain why the expected development towards a transcendent existence does not occur. These explanations state that cultural characteristics may prevent such a normal development. On the other hand Thorsen (1998) argues that in Western post-modern cultures the ageing processes are becoming manifold, often contradictory. Elderly present versions of the selves that are becoming complex, multiplied (multiple selves), acting at different scenes, stamped by varied cultural values, presenting mixed versions of activity and passivity, engagement and retractment, wordliness and transcendence (Thorsen, 1998). This in turn sheds further doubts on the ageing process and how such process should be v iewed by the healthcare workers, nurse researchers and the elderly themselves. Redfern and Ross (2006) argue that despite numerous theories of ageing, interpretative frameworks and guidelines of care, the ageing process and the care involved cannot be standardized into one single definition and/or guidelines of care. What is the Aim and Intention of the Theory? The theory of gerotranscendence attempts to explain why a transcendent form of life is the most natural one. His explanation is that this is a biological necessity for everyone. Tornstam also explains why we dont see so much transcendence among the elderly in our Western culture (Wadensten, 2006). He claims that this is because our culture does not allow or appreciate transcendence, and instead regards such phenomena as unnatural and irrational. It may also be discussed whether the theory presents predictions about a positive old age. The theory states that a transcendent old age is positive and this may be understood as a normative prediction on old age. On the other hand, Thorsen (1998) warns that Tornstams theory should not be viewed as a universal process, applicable for every human being. Thorsen (1998) narrates that old age and its process are embedded within society as the latter contains notions about normative appropriateness to various age groups. 4.0 Critique of the Theory Is the Theory Coherent and Consistent? The theory is predominantly coherent, for a reader it is easy to understand what Tornstam means when he describes the ageing process as a development towards a more contemplative form of life. Thorsen (1998) highlights some unclear arguments from the theory presented by Tornstam. Thorsen (1998) argues that the theory of gerotranscendence points out that throughout mid-life an individual is more materialistic and rational. If it is true that we are more materialistic and rational in mid-life should that not apply to everyone, also those people living in the East? If this is a genetic factor it should apply to all people. Or do cultural characteristics take precedence over biological factors? (Thorsen, 1998). Thorsen (1998) considers this part of Tornstams theory to be somewhat vague and inconsistent. In line with this perspective Thorsen (1998) argue that old people, like young people, are undergoing an individual and social process of change. At the same time individuals of all ages are influenced by changes in the spirit of the age. Thorsen (1998) argues that irrelevant from the age group; changing cultural characteristics leave their stamp both on the individuals world-view and his/her perception of self. The main argument of Thorsen (1998) is that he rejects the notion proposed by Tornstam that transcendence is determined by intrinsic genetic factors. In fact Thorsen (1998) states that self is neither cultural, ahistoric, bodiless and genderless in the ageing process. This argument puts more doubts on how the older adult and the ageing person should be viewed within the society, more precisely within the healthcare system. Furthermore, one may question whether there is consistency between Tornstams own paradigm and his theory. According to his research paradigm the values and opinions of the elderly themselves shall form the basis of theories on ageing which in turn provide an interpretative framework in health care education and practice settings. The theory of gerotranscendence is logically derived from another theory and is based on empirical research with the elderly as research objects. One may argue that it is hard to find the consistency here between Tornstams theory and his paradigm. Likewise, the consistency becomes somewhat ambiguous between Tornstams research paradigm and his own research to verify his theory as the author applies the survey method (Tornstam 1994) to verify his own theory, which may seem rather peculiar viewed in the light of his severe criticism of the natural science paradigm. Tornstam (1996b) also states that phenomenological philosophy and anthropology may be useful poin ts of departure for approaching the theory. It can hardly be said that Tornstam himself employs such a theoretical basis; it was not before the qualitative study in 1997 that he introduced this approach. The implications of the above argument on nursing education involve that further research is required in order to test the validity of the theory of gerotranscendence, as research on the latter is limited. This is also sustained the nursing literature reviewed for the purpose of this essay (Gamliel, 2001: Wadensten and Carlsson, 2002: Wadensten and Carlsson, 2000). Within the practical settings, the implications of the above argument involve the revising of the practical guidelines provided by Tornstam, based on his theory (Wadensten and Carlsson, 2002). Although these guidelines provide an interpretative framework for nurses within nursing practice, when viewed in the light of lack of rigorous nursing research about the topic, one needs to consider their specificity and sensitivity to identify the signs of gerotranscendence in the older adult. Is the Theory Useful for Nursing? The theory of gerotranscendence is formulated in a gerontological research community and is not specifically linked to nursing (Gamliel, 2001: Tornstam, 1997b). Will the theory of ageing in general and this theory in particular be useful for nursing? In order to answer this question one must first explain what is meant by useful. Theory may be useful both for developing the theory structure of an academic subject and for the practical exercise of a profession (Meleis, 1991). In terms of theory structure this theory may lead to a more balanced understanding of the old patient. The theoretical bases that have been predominant within nursing are role theories and the activity theory. Role theories, such as the theory of the social breakdown syndrome, explain the withdrawal of the elderly as loss of role in society (Redfern Ross, 2006). The passivity of the elderly in institutions has also been interpreted with similar theories. Thus, there are grounds for stating that the theories which have so far been employed in nursing are based on one paradigm and mainly on one explanatory strategy loss of roles (Fawcett, 2000). When the withdrawal of the elderly is only considered a disadvantage and is explained to be caused by loss of roles, it is logical that activation is chosen as a means to curb a negative development. The theory of gerotranscendence may provide another interpretation and explanation of the withdrawal of the elderly (Wadensten, 2006: Wadensten and Carlsson, 2002). For practical nursing a new perspective may have concrete consequences, both for the occupation itself and for the nurse personally. Nurses, like other occupational groups, perform their occupation on the basis of theoretical knowledge, intrinsic values and practical skills. A practicing nurse is many years younger than the old patient and will probably be influenced by those values that Tornstam calls Western and which are predominant in mid-life. Because of all these factors the nurse may easily find that the old person has a passive and pathetic form of life, and consider the right remedy will be to activate the patient (Wadensten, 2006: Wadensten and Carlsson, 2002). Nurses have till now been trained to, and been socialized into a role in which everybody thinks that all elderly are to be activated whether they want to or not. Nurses have learnt that activity is healthy and we know that activity may prevent social isolation, physical decline and complications (Redfern and Ross, 2006). Thus, the nurse feels that her knowledge of this phenomenon gives her a right and duty to activate the old patient. The nurse can motivate and defend her choice of action by a theory which states that it is good for people, including the elderly, to be active. In this perspective one may argue that Tornstams theory may be a useful supplement. If his theory is emphasized as much in practical nursing as the above mentioned theories have been, the nurse will be entitled to let the patient choose what many of us would call passivity. The nurse will be able to explain on the basis of a theory why the patient has been given such a choice (Wadensten, 2006: Wadensten and Carlsson, 2002). Secondly, the nurse will have a better conscience while performing her job. Many nurses find they are forcing the elderly to be active. This type of coercion is against ethical principles such as the autonomy principle, and serves to give the nurse a bad conscience. The nurse is in an awkward position, between the benevolence principle based on the paradigm that Tornstam criticizes so heavily and the autonomy principle. The theory of gerotranscendence may help to lessen the conflict between these two principles. 5.0 Conclusion Tornstams theory of gerotranscendence introduces a completely new method of interpreting old age. What makes this theory special is his new interpretation of the withdrawal and passivity of the elderly as another form of activity. This activity is qualitatively different from the visible activity that we have focused on so far, in the form of social activity and engagement. Tornstam labels this form of activity transcendence and says that it helps to enhance the experience of a good life. Tornstam contributes to a balanced understanding of living into old age, and is obviously right in his criticism of how we have transplanted mid-life values into old age. His theory may to a large extent provide a new understanding of life in old age, for example old people who refuse to extend their social sphere, or who do not find activities in institutions meaningful. Tornstams theory is interesting and exciting to read and is extremely relevant for nursing. It can offer new ideas to nursing and insights into ageing and into those values and theories that influence the exercise of a practical occupation.

The Causes of World War One

‘World War One was the result of a series of unintended and disconnected events. ’ Does this opinion adequately explain the causes of World War One? It is understandable that historians ponder on what exactly caused a war that destroyed Europe’s economy, cost the lives of 37 million men and involved a country from every region of the world (from the Americas to Asia). The opinion this essay will discuss implies that the events that led to this major conflict were unintended and disconnected; and in order to emit a judgement that would agree or disagree with this view it is important to first identify the causes of world war one.Therefore this essay will first discuss the different types of causes (long, mid and short terms), respectively nationalism, imperialism/militarism and the ‘blank cheque’. Hence this essay will evaluate whether these were ‘disconnected and unintended events’ or if there is a connection between the causes. The main sources used in this essay are Coles’ general notes on world history and historian Martin Gilbert’s book entitled ‘First World War’. The long term causes prepared the ground for the war.Nationalism can be categorized into the long term causes because it had influenced Europe prior to 1914, and as French writer Guy de Maupassant argues, ‘it is the eldest cause of any war’. Quite a popular phenomenon in the late 19th century and beginning of the 20th, nationalism produced pride in one’s country’s achievements. The world war one themes paper observed that this ‘led to xenophobia and ideas of racial superiority’; but what it fails to mention is that as much as nationalism could provide feelings of superiority it could also provide feelings of equality.For example, minorities that previously were dominated by larger powers were now swept with waves of nationalism. This could be observed in the Balkans in the prelude of th e world war; where small states were experimenting Pan-Slavism, ‘a nationalistic movement for political and cultural solidity of all Slavic people’ thus a threat to the Austrian Empire who dominated the South Slavs.One could argue that this form of nationalism led to Franz Ferdinand’s assassination by an extreme Serb nationalist group, or that it was the Austrian’s nationalism (their pride in their achievement of an empire) that pressured them into keeping all minorities within the empire at all costs; this leading to the Austro-Hungarian ‘impossible’ ultimatum to Serbia on the 23rd of July 1914.Nationalist mood in Europe could also be seen in France; more than 30 years after the French were defeated in the Franco-Prussian war a black cloth still veiled the statue of Strasbourg in the Place de la Concorde and it was a symbol, a constant reminder of the loss of the two eastern provinces, Alsace and Lorraine. The French still remembered the defe at and often spoke of ‘La Revanche’ (the revenge).As historian Gilbert argues, ‘War, if it came, would be an irresistible opportunity to fulfil long harboured desires or to avenge long-nurtured hatreds’. Historian Martin Kelly also argues that ‘it was nationalism, that manifested itself in the pan-Slav feeling of the Russian population, that tied Russia and Serbia together whilst Austria declared war, and thereby triggering what would have been a limited local conflict into world war’.When the Russian tsar signed the order commanding full mobilisation of Russian troops because ‘Russia could not remain indifferent to a declaration of war on Serbia’ and as the ultimate proof of the stimulating effects of Nationalism, editor Alex Bein remembered that ‘the Russian popular sentiment applauded the fullest possible solidarity with the beleaguered fellow Slavs of Serbia’. In this particular case it is difficult to determine wh ether these events occurred under the ‘Nationalism’ potential cause or the ‘Alliances’.Without dropping into philosophical or anthropological arguments, this essay will assume that alliances themselves were generated because of nationalism, as countries really wanted to increase their power by allying themselves with other powers, which in the end is motivated by a nationalist feeling. It is often observed in general history that events sometimes only occur because they are in a specific context. ‘Mid-term’ causes, if it the events that occurred slightly prior to the commencement of the war (between 1970 and 1914) can be labelled so, could be held responsible for creating a context specific to that time.In this case, militarism and imperialism greatly shaped the relations between the powers and consequently the political shape of pre-war Europe. Imperialism was a symbol of power that allowed the European powers to expand their overseas territor ies and therefore ‘gain new markets, raw materials and fields of investment’. The movement of ‘the Scramble for Africa’ left most of the African continent occupied by Europeans, notably colonies of Britain, France, Portugal, Spain and Belgium; Germany did have some overseas territories, but as historian Gilbert remarks ‘The Kaiser did not make ffective use of its colonies, and owned them by name rather than by practice’. This observation shows that the Kaiser attached a symbolic importance to colonies. The ambitious German king wished that his recently united Germany (the German unification had only occurred in 1971, not even half a century before the war) would possess more overseas territories. Unfortunately most of the African continent was already ‘occupied’; leaving the Kaiser with a bitter feeling of rivalry with Britain and France.This led to the dangerous Agadir crisis, in which the Kaiser had ordered a fleet to establish a port at Agadir, on the Atlantic coast of Morocco. The British feared this would give the Germans an undesired strong grip in Northern Africa, and thus threatened them to respond in ‘a hostile manner’ if the German gunboat did not depart immediately. ‘The threat was effective, but the rancour which left it was equally strong’, noted Gilbert. At the Reichstag, a few weeks after the event, a social democrat commented in a worried tone that tensions could lead to a war, to which a parliamentarian responded: ‘After every war things are better! The imperialistic tendencies of Europeans unavoidably led to tensions within Europe itself, generating mutual suspicions and fear. This could explain why the European powers felt the need to invest in the military: in the 1870s, all six major European powers had adopted compulsory military training, which resulted in some 4 ? million men under arms by 1914. Each power’s General army staffs had well-drawn batt le plans in readiness: the French had ‘Plan 17’, the Germans had ‘Schlieffen plan’ and Russians had ‘Plan A’. By the beginning of the conflict a total amount of $2 billion a year was spent on armament (all powers combined).It can only be logically concluded that if the powers were investing so much time and money in military they were intending to use it. Finally, it was the ‘short term’ causes led to critical events that escalated into the war. A general historical view observes that it all began when Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo, on the 28th of June 2014. The Italian foreign minister at the time observed that ‘The telegram indicated that the assassination of the Archduke was the occasion rather than the cause of Austria’s ultimatum to Serbia, and it reveals the reason for Austria’s action [invading Serbia]’.This view can also be supported by the fact that ‘between 1906 and 1914 the Austrian Chief of Staff General Hotzendorf had asked more than 25 times for a ‘surprise’ war on Serbia’. The Austro-Hungarians wanted to reduce Serbia’s power by attacking her. When they were provided with an excuse to do so (Ferdinand’s assassination) ‘They were not fully confident to attack immediately for fear of Russian retaliation,’ argues Gilbert: ‘but the fact that they had unconditional German support if ever the conflict widened gave them confidence’.It is argued that the Germans had given their full support because the Austro-Hungarians were their most precious allies, and they could not afford losing the cooperation of the other central power when they were encircled by the Triple Entente (Russia, Britain and France). Therefore, to some extent, it can be argued that it is this unconditional support that pushed Austria to declare war on Serbia, without considering the Russian factor. The main issue with identifyi ng causes of the world war is that there are several and none that can be granted full prominence because opinions vary.It is also difficult to establish a cause and effect relationship, because there is no precision and again, it is subjective. This considered, a link can still be noticed in the causes enumerated above: Nationalism made European powers want to achieve more for them, leading to prestigious and expensive colonization. Unfortunately these imperialist tendencies created conflicts between the powers, creating mutual suspicions and alliances. The tensions gave the powers a feeling of insecurity, and led way to intense militarisation which meant that the powers could be ready in a matter of weeks in the event of a war.The Germans were so prepared for a war they could afford giving their unconditional support to Austria, who then attacked Serbia, and triggered the alliance system. It is a way to explain how the causes are linked; but it is not necessarily pertinent in the sense that these events could have been simply events; they only became causes because of the war. For example, if we use counterfactual history and assume that Austria would have never attacked Serbia, perhaps the war would have broken out over Britain and Germany fighting for an access to the Suez Canal, which at that time would have been likely.Perhaps the war would have never happened if the Europeans did not see war as an acceptable method to solve conflicts: as the German parliamentarian had pointed out, ‘after a war all things are better! ’ and the view that most historians believe that actually the war ‘had long been in the making’. As the American historical review states, ‘There was no slide to war, no war caused by ‘unintended’ events, but instead a world war caused by a fearful set of elite statesmen and rulers making deliberate choices’.Word count: 1 712Bibliography & Words cited â€Å"A. J. P. Taylor. † Wik ipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 18 Aug. 2012. Web. 20 Aug. 2012. <http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/A. _J. _P. _Taylor>. â€Å"Causes of World War 1. † About. com American History. N. p. , n. d. Web. 20 Aug. 2012. <http://americanhistory. about. com/od/worldwari/tp/causes-of-world-war-1. htm>. Clare, John D. â€Å"Causes of WWI – Four Steps to War. † Causes of WWI – Four Steps to War. N. p. , n. d. Web. 20 Aug. 2012. <http://www. johndclare. net/causes_WWI4. htm>. Gilbert, Martin. â€Å"Chapter 1: Prelude to War. † The First World War: A Complete History. New York: H. Holt, 1994. N. pag. Print. Gilbert, Martin. â€Å"Chapter 2: Wild with Joy. † The First World War: A Complete History. New York: H. Holt, 1994. N. pag. Print. â€Å"Nationalism. † Nationalism, Patriotism and Loyalty to Causes. N. p. , n. d. Web. 20 Aug. 2012. <http://www. tentmaker. org/Quotes/nationalism_patriotism_quotes. html>. †Summary of the Causes of WW1† Moodle. isp. N. p. , n. d. Web. 20 Aug. 2012. <http://isparis. moodle. overnetdata. com/file. php/13/Summary_of_the_Causes_of_WW1. pdf>. World History: Notes. Toronto: Coles Pub. , 1979. Print.

The Debate Over The Legalization Of Marijuana - 952 Words

I would like to address my concern over the legalization of marijuana. The debate over the issue of marijuana and its legalization has been an immensely prevalent one in the nation over several years now. The issue of legalizing marijuana is truly a controversial one, and certainly one that requires a plethora of considerations at the top levels of the legislative branch. Legalizing marijuana would not only make it easily accessible to patients for treatment in states in which medicinal marijuana is currently not legal but would also decrease the tax burden associated with the current criminalization of marijuana users. As you may know, medical marijuana emerged as a mainstream medicine by the 19th century used primarily in the West. Today, medical marijuana is being utilized for numerous medical reasons. Some of these reasons include, but are not limited to, the following: the amelioration of nausea and vomiting, stimulation of hunger in chemotherapy and AID’s patients, lowered intraocular eye pressure (shown to be effective for treating glaucoma, as well as gastrointestinal illness). In addition, cannabis may offer â€Å"fewer negative side effects than opioids-which can be highly addictive-and NSAIDS (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs), which can induce stomach ulcers, bleeding, and kidney failure,† said Allen St. Pierre, an executive director of the national organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws. On the other hand, however, studies show that if misused, increasedShow MoreRelatedThe Debate Over Legalization Of Marijuana1732 Words   |  7 PagesThe Proposed Debate for the Legalization of Marijuana Jonathan Acree Online Research Methods Middle Georgia State University Fall 2016 Abstract The purpose of this content is to strategically examine the overwhelming plethora of information surrounding the legalization of marijuana. Many sources available have been used to identify the mental, physical, economic and social issues surrounding the facets of marijuana use on both ends of the spectrum. While the judicial system is holding to theRead MoreEssay about The Debate over the Legalization of Marijuana2786 Words   |  12 PagesThe debate over whether or not marijuana should be legalized has been active throughout the United States for nearly a century with arguments from both sides, pro and con, posing quite valid points. Research has proven that cannabis, in various forms, has been used for hundreds of years for recreational, medicinal and industrial purposes. Contrary to common misconception, cannabis, or marijuana, is not smoked in all forms. Only the flowers, or buds, and leaves are harvested for recreational use.Read MoreThe Debate Over The Legalization of Mar ijuana Essay examples1363 Words   |  6 Pagesare affected by public actions and decisions. In the United States, there are governmental actions that decided just how much intervention will be used on a business. This is a redundant topic, as the two political parties, Republican and Democrat, debate the issue frequently. The idea of â€Å"laissez-faire† is a free market economy where businesses have the right to do whatever they want. Republicans tend to lean towards this ideal, while Democrats call for more governmental intervention on businessesRead MoreEssay about Should We Legalize Marijuana in Canada?1081 Words   |  5 PagesTo Legalize or to Not Legalize: The Debate Behind Marijuana in Canada The legalization of marijuana is an issue that consistently discussed and debated, not only in North America, but throughout the entire world. Despite being illegal in every country, marijuana remains the most widely used illicit drug in the world. The popularity of this drug is the cause for the continuous legalization debate, resulting in various legislations pertaining to the consumption of the substance. Every country hasRead MoreA Call for the Continued Prohibition of Marijuana and Other Drugs1239 Words   |  5 PagesA Call for the Continued Prohibition of Marijuana and Other Drugs Alcohol, if consumed in high quantities, poses serious personal and public health and safety issues. In the realm of public safety, engaging in said activity significantly impairs cognitive activity, affecting one’s ability to utilize proper judgment and operate machinery, among other things. Thus, operating machinery while under the influence of alcohol puts not only the operator, but also others in the vicinity of the operator,Read MoreAn Analysis of President Obama’s Remarks about Marijuana Essay624 Words   |  3 Pagescontroversial remarks about legalizing marijuana. President Obama stated that he did not think that marijuana was â€Å"more dangerous than alcohol† (Remnick). This comment has caused proponents of legalizing marijuana to praise the President, while opponents are criticizing him for seemingly supporting this banned substance. 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The said chemical compound affects the mental and physical health of the personsRead MoreThe War On Marijuana Should Be Legalized915 Words   |  4 PagesNO THANKSUSE THE APP Marijuana Coker Ashley Coker Mrs. Petti 4th Period 30 September 2015 The War On Marijuana Marijuana is the most commonly used drug in the United States. However it has the singular distinction of being both a commonly used illegal substance and also a legally prescribed medical substance for mentally ill patients in many states. â€Å"Marijuana has been scientifically proven to reduce pain in patients suffering from conditions like Rheumatoid Arthritis.†(Drug Policy Alliance)

Ethical Dilemma Within The Medical Field - 1687 Words

Ethical Dilemma within a Household There are various ethical dilemmas throughout the medical field. Some cases are more challenging than others. In, â€Å"My Sister’s Keeper,† a thirteen-year-old girl named Anna, hired a lawyer to sue her parents for medical emancipation. Anna was conceived to become a medical donor to her older sister Kate who was diagnosed with acute promyleocytic leukemia. After several years of donating to her sister, she eventually decides to express her feelings about no longer wanting to being a donor. She states that she is worried about her own health and wellness in the future if she continues to donate. Within the book, several ethical issues were presented. The most important issue was whether or not Anna†¦show more content†¦Anna and Campbell portrayed the side explaining how important it was for Anna to be able to make her own decisions about her body, while Anna’s mother argued against them. Anna took a justice approach, which is the belief that everyone should treated equally and fairly (Bonde and Firenze, 2013). Anna shares with her lawyer, Campbell, all the procedures she has already been through due to her parent’s decision. Even as a newborn, doctors donating her white blood cells to her sister. Then over the years, her parents continued several times making the decision to have Anna donate more to her sister. From a newborn to a teenager, she already had donated some of her white blood cells, lymphocytes, bone marrow, granulocytes, and peripheral blood stem cells. (Picoult, 2014, p 21). Anna feels that by forcing her to undergo procedures wit hout her full consent was unjust. It would be extremely unfair to make her donate a kidney especially when that specific procedure could cause harm and life long side effects. Later on in the story during the trial, Campbell took a non-consequentialist approach, known as the rights approach. This approach identified that the best decision was one that protected the ethical rights of those who were directly affected by the action (Bonde and Firenze, 2013). While the family doctor was up on the stand, Campbell asked him to read off the potential risksShow MoreRelatedImportance of Ethical Theory in Nursing1322 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction The concept of ethical nursing and culturally competent care are becoming more and more important in the contemporary nursing practice (Smith Godfrey,2002).Despite their general appreciation in nursing practice, challenges and dilemma often clouds their application in a world which is continually being marked with a culturally diverse and demanding population. In this paper we present a critical review of ethics and cultural competence in professional nursing practice with a clearRead MoreEthical Dilemmas in Healthcare1032 Words   |  5 PagesRunning head: ETHICAL DILEMMAS IN THE HEALTHCARE SETTING Ethical Dilemmas in Healthcare Harold Ben Harris Jr. Trident University International BHS365 - Ethics in the Healthcare Setting (Mod 1 - SLP) Charles Spach November 3rd, 2012 Abstract Session Long Project: The goal of the Session Long Project is to identify and evaluate the ethical principles used in resolving ethical dilemmas, and to apply the principles to specific ethical issues that may haveRead MoreThe Codes Of Conduct Are Guidelines And Procedures1347 Words   |  6 Pagesimplemented, so that workers can adhere to the highest standards of care while utilizing ethical approaches and codes of conduct, amounts to the foundations of Long-term care facilities based on principles. It is the responsibility of such parties that include upper levels of management to the lowest levels to avoid such conduct that goes against the stated codes already establishes within the ethical areas. The healthcare field encompasses different areas and specialties, where it is deemed most common isRead MoreEthical Dilemmas Of Health Care1224 Words   |  5 PagesEthical Dilemmas in Health Care Nurses are constantly challenged by changes which occur in their practice environment and are under the influence of internal or external factors. Due to the increased complexity of the health system, nowadays nurses are faced with ethical and legal decisions and often come across dilemmas regarding patient care. From this perspective a good question to be raised would be whether or not nurses have the necessary background, knowledge and skills to make appropriateRead MoreEthical Issue in Pharmacy1618 Words   |  7 PagesEthical issues in the retail pharmaceutical industry: An analysis of the ethical dilemmas faced within Chaguanas Drug Mart Limited Abstract: The ethical duty of a pharmacy is to promote a patient’s best interest. However, certain obvious ethical issues will arise. Within any business involved in bulk purchasing the issue of unconscious theft will also occur. The following paper focuses on the application of ethical theories that supports as well as argues the behavior within Chaguanas Drug MartRead MoreThe Ethical Dilemmas Of The Pediatric Field Of Nursing1316 Words   |  6 PagesNurses working in the pediatric field of nursing are faced with a wide variety of ethical dilemmas. There are many ethical dilemmas that can arise in the work field. Many individuals are having a tough time deciding to vaccinate their children; this in turn can leave society with a huge dilemma ethically. I am choosing to write about not vaccinating your child and why I feel this can be an ethical dilemma. Society today is faced with so many preventable illnesses that can simply be resolved byRead MoreAnalysis of Ethical Dilemma1261 Words   |  6 PagesAnalysis of Ethical Dilemma Grand Canyon University NRS-437V Ethical Decision Making in Health Care Analysis of Ethical Dilemma Natural calamities are unpredictable phenomena’s where the damage may be countless and immeasurable examples of natural calamities are earthquakes, floods and famine. In situations like this relief operations are challenging even though many organizations and nations extend their resources to overcome the disaster. We often face issues and concerns in a massiveRead MoreLegal an Ethical Issues in Nursing Essay872 Words   |  4 PagesTitle: Ethical and Legal issues in Nursing paper Student Name: Aleyamma John, RN Course Name/Number: NUR/391 Due Date: Mar 21, 2011 Instructor Name: Dolores Martinez Nurses are facing many legal or ethical dilemmas in their career. Nurses should combine knowledge of ethical and legal aspects of health care and professional values into nursing practice. It is very essential to know what kind of dilemmas nurses may face during their profession and how they have been dealt with in theRead MoreAnalysis of an Ethical Dilemma Essay1232 Words   |  5 Pages Analysis of an Ethical Dilemma (Part1) Voluntary/ Assisted Euthanasia By Feba Erattakulangara, Jacinda Koski, Nne Uyoh, Olga Gray Grand Canyon University Ethical Decision Making in Health Care NRS 437V February 24, 2013 Analysis of an Ethical Dilemma (Part1) Voluntary/ Assisted Euthanasia Amongst the multitude of ethical dilemmas in health care the debate about voluntary or assisted euthanasia presents to be theRead MoreEthical Dilemma In Nursing1599 Words   |  7 Pagessituations where you have to choose between the two because both choices have their advantages and disadvantages. This is an ethical dilemma. An ethical dilemma involves morals that clash between each other, and some involve the legal aspect of the choices (Grohar- Murray). Everyone faces some sort of ethical dilemma. There are some professions that have to battle ethical dilemmas every day. Amongst those professions the nursing occupation and other healthcare related titles have to keep in mind several